Forgotten Gando: Why the autonomous Korean territory within China remains a footnote in history

EXPLORING KOREA: Stories from Milwaukee to the DMZ and across a divided Peninsula. This special series explores historical sites and cultural traditions from across the Korean Peninsula, building a bridge back to the search for identity in Milwaukee. From the occupation of Korea at the end of World War II, to Korean War veterans in Milwaukee, veterans from Milwaukee who served in later years at the DMZ, adopted South Korean children who grew up in Milwaukee, different waves of the South Korean diaspora who moved to Milwaukee to raise their families, and even a defector from North Korea, their stories share generations of Korean and American experiences. https://mkeind.com/koreanstories

As the Korean War ravaged the Korean Peninsula from 1950 to 1953, the world’s attention was riveted on the fierce battles, the tragic division of Korea, and the high-stakes negotiations that eventually led to the armistice.

However, beyond the broader context of the conflict, there exists the lesser-known yet historically significant region of Gando. Also known as Jiandao in Chinese, it encompasses areas along the Tumen and Yalu Rivers near the border between China and North Korea.

The area, rich in Korean cultural and historical ties, could have been a point of contention or even a bargaining chip in the complex geopolitics of the time. Yet, Gando remained largely on the periphery of the Korean War’s settlement discussions, overshadowed by the immediate concerns of the warring nations.

The region is located in the northeastern part of modern-day China, primarily in what is now the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of Jilin Province. The territory holds significant importance for Koreans, as it was once controlled by ancient Korean kingdoms, particularly Goguryeo, which existed from 37 BCE to 668 CE.

Over the centuries, the region became home to many ethnic Koreans, especially during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when many Koreans migrated there to escape poverty and Japanese colonial rule.

Gando is largely synonymous with the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and the surrounding areas within Jilin Province. Its fertile lands and proximity to the Korean Peninsula made it a natural destination for Korean migrants who sought refuge from economic hardship and political instability in the neighboring regions of China.

The status of Gando has been a contentious issue between Korea and China. The region was officially recognized as part of China in the early 20th century under various agreements between Japan, which then occupied Korea, and China.

The most notable agreement was the 1909 Gando Convention, where Japan as the ruling power over Korea, acknowledged Chinese sovereignty of the region in exchange for certain economic privileges.

Over the decades, the Korean settlers established communities, cultivated the land, and maintained their cultural practices, even as they adapted to life in China. The region’s Korean population grew steadily, and by the time of the Japanese occupation of Manchuria in the 1930s, Gando had become a hub of Korean resistance activities against Japanese imperialism.

After World War II and the subsequent Chinese Civil War, the newly established People’s Republic of China faced the challenge of integrating its vast and ethnically diverse territory.

Recognizing the significant Korean population in the region, the Chinese government established the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in 1952 as part of its broader policy of granting limited autonomy to ethnic minorities.

The creation of Yanbian was both a practical and symbolic gesture. It acknowledged the unique identity of the Korean population while also integrating them into the Chinese state. The historical term “Gando” then became associated with territorial disputes and Koreans shifted to using “Yanbian” instead.

The prefecture was granted certain autonomous rights, particularly in cultural and educational matters. Korean was recognized as an official language alongside Mandarin, and local governance was designed to reflect the ethnic composition of the population.

As the Korean War dragged on to the south of Yanbian, the focus of all parties involved was squarely on the peninsula, particularly the battle lines drawn along the 38th parallel. In the intense geopolitical struggle, the question of Gando, despite its historical and cultural significance to Koreans, did not play a central role in the conflict or the subsequent armistice negotiations. It remained largely a footnote.

The idea of revisiting the status of Gando during the Korean War was never seriously considered by the major powers. However, the historical ties between Gando and Korea, along with the presence of a significant Korean population in the region, made it a point of interest for some factions within Korea, particularly among Korean nationalists.

For the United States and its allies, the primary objective during the Korean War was to contain the spread of Communism and prevent the fall of South Korea. The war’s focus was on the Korean Peninsula itself, and the idea of reclaiming an area deep within Chinese territory would have been seen as an unnecessary provocation.

The entry of Chinese forces into the Korean War in late 1950 had already escalated the conflict to a dangerous level, and challenging China’s sovereignty over Gando would have risked widening the war.

From a practical standpoint, the area around Gando had been under Chinese control for decades before the Korean War began. Although it had a significant ethnic Korean population, many of these Koreans had by then integrated into Chinese society.

China, under Mao Zedong’s leadership, had no intention of ceding any territory, especially after the sacrifices made during the Korean War. With the issue of Taiwan looming, the status of any part of Chinese territory was not up for negotiation.

For Mao, maintaining control over Gando was not just a matter of national sovereignty, but also of maintaining stability in a region that was already ethnically diverse and politically sensitive. The idea of reclaiming Gando for Korea, while symbolically appealing to some Korean nationalists, was not a viable option in the eyes of the major powers involved in the conflict.

One of the most remarkable aspects of Gando, fully recognized by its Yanbian name after the Korean War’s armistice, was how it managed to preserve Korean culture within the framework of Chinese governance.

In Yanbian, Korean traditions, language, and customs were actively maintained and celebrated. Korean was taught in schools, Korean holidays were observed, and Korean food remains a staple of the local cuisine. The region is also home to several cultural institutions, including theaters, museums, and media outlets, that promote Korean heritage.

The Yanbian University, located in the prefecture’s capital of Yanji, plays a crucial role in cultural preservation. It offers bilingual education and serves as a center for research on Korean language, history, and culture. The institutional support helps ensure that the Korean identity remains vibrant, even as the region becomes increasingly integrated into the broader Chinese economy and society.

Yanbian’s strategic location has made it an important area for China’s economic ambitions, particularly in relation to its neighbors, North Korea and Russia. The prefecture has benefited from its role as a gateway for trade and investment, particularly since the implementation of China’s reform and opening-up policies in the late 20th century.

The Tumen River Area Development Program, an international initiative involving China, North Korea, and Russia, aimed to transform Yanbian into a hub for cross-border trade and cooperation. However, economic development in Yanbian has been uneven. While urban areas like Yanji saw significant growth, rural parts of the prefecture remain underdeveloped.

The region also faces challenges such as population decline, as younger generations migrate to larger Chinese cities in search of better opportunities. The demographic shift poses a threat to the preservation of Korean culture in Yanbian, as the traditional rural communities that have maintained Korean customs for generations are gradually diminishing.

Yanbian’s location near the border with North Korea adds a layer of geopolitical complexity to its story. The prefecture is a key site for China’s interactions with North Korea, particularly in terms of trade and security. During times of tension on the Korean Peninsula, Yanbian has often found itself on the front lines, managing the flow of refugees and maintaining stability in the border regions.

China’s relationship with North Korea is deeply intertwined with the fate of Yanbian. While the Chinese government officially supports stability and peace on the Korean Peninsula, the presence of a large Korean population in Yanbian means that any significant changes in the region, such as a potential reunification of Korea or instability in North Korea, could have direct implications for the prefecture.

Yanbian faces the challenge of balancing economic modernization with cultural preservation. The region’s unique identity as a Korean autonomous prefecture within China is both a source of pride and a potential point of tension. The Chinese government’s approach to ethnic minorities in Western regions has become more assimilationist in recent years, raising concerns about the future of Korean cultural autonomy in Yanbian.

The story of Yanbian, historically known as Gando, remains a region of cultural and historical importance for Koreans. However, its role in broader geopolitics serves as a reminder that not all territorial disputes find their way to the negotiating table.