A pawn of history: How the Great Power struggle to control Korea set the stage for its civil war

EXPLORING KOREA: Stories from Milwaukee to the DMZ and across a divided Peninsula. This special series explores historical sites and cultural traditions from across the Korean Peninsula, building a bridge back to the search for identity in Milwaukee. From the occupation of Korea at the end of World War II, to Korean War veterans in Milwaukee, veterans from Milwaukee who served in later years at the DMZ, adopted South Korean children who grew up in Milwaukee, different waves of the South Korean diaspora who moved to Milwaukee to raise their families, and even a defector from North Korea, their stories share generations of Korean and American experiences. https://mkeind.com/koreanstories

The Great Power struggle between Russia, China, and Japan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries set the stage for Japan to colonize Korea, and later contributed to the conditions that led to the Korean War.

The complex geopolitical rivalry involved a series of conflicts and diplomatic maneuvers that reshaped East Asia. While the Korean War started as a civil war between North and South Korea, it quickly became an international conflict due to the involvement of global powers aligned along Cold War lines. As a result, it is accurate to describe the Korean War as both a civil war and an international conflict.

SETTING THE STAGE

By the mid-19th century, the Qing Dynasty in China was in decline, weakened by internal strife, corruption, and defeats in conflicts such as the Opium Wars against Britain. The vulnerability made China an attractive target for other powers seeking to carve out spheres of influence. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan rapidly industrialized and modernized its military, seeking to become a dominant regional power. At the same time, Czarist Russia was expanding eastward through Siberia, seeking warm-water ports and influence in East Asia.

THE SINO-JAPANESE WAR

The initial conflict of significance in the power struggle was the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). During that period, China, under the Qing Dynasty, had exerted suzerainty over Korea for centuries. However, Japan, emerging as a modernized nation-state after the Meiji Restoration, sought to expand its influence and challenge Chinese dominance in Korea. The war ended in a decisive Japanese victory, and the Treaty of Shimonoseki forced China to cede Taiwan to Japan and recognize Korean independence, effectively ending Chinese influence over Korea.

THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR

Following the Sino-Japanese War, Russia, which had also been expanding its influence in East Asia, became the next major power to contend with Japan. The two nations clashed over their competing interests in Korea and Manchuria, leading to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Japan’s victory in this war shocked the world, particularly because it was the first time an Asian power had defeated a European power in modern history. The Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by the United States, recognized Japan’s paramount interests in Korea and granted Japan control over the Liaodong Peninsula and the South Manchurian Railway.

JAPANESE COLONIZATION OF KOREA

With its regional rivals weakened, Japan formally annexed Korea in 1910. The Japanese colonization of Korea was characterized by efforts to assimilate Koreans, exploit the country’s resources, and suppress Korean culture and resistance. The period of colonial rule lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, leaving deep-seated resentment among the Korean people.

THE END OF WORLD WAR II

The defeat of Japan in World War II led to the liberation of Korea. However, the power vacuum left by Japan’s departure and the onset of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union resulted in Korea’s division. The 38th parallel was established as a temporary dividing line, with Soviet forces occupying the north and American forces occupying the south.

THE KOREAN WAR

The division of Korea set the stage for the Korean War. In the north, a Communist regime was established under Kim Il-sung with Soviet support, while in the south a capitalist government was formed under Syngman Rhee with American backing. Tensions between the two Koreas, fueled by ideological differences and the broader Cold War context, erupted into full-scale war in 1950 when North Korean forces, supported by the Soviet Union and China, invaded the south. The United States and United Nations forces intervened on behalf of South Korea, leading to a brutal and protracted conflict that ended in an armistice in 1953, but not a formal peace treaty, leaving the Korean Peninsula divided to this day.

TIMELINE

1894-1895: Japan defeats China in the First Sino-Japanese War and gains influence over Korea.

1904-1905: Russo-Japanese War ends with the utter defeat of Russian Far East forces by Imperial Japan, allowing it to solidify control over Korea.

1910: Japanese Annexation of Korea and it formally becomes a Japanese colony.

1945: Japan surrenders and ends World War II. Korea is liberated, but gets divided at the 38th parallel, with Soviet forces in the north and American forces in the south.

1948: Establishment of Separate Governments with North Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea) established under Kim Il-sung, and South Korea (Republic of Korea) established under Syngman Rhee.

1950 June 25: North Korean forces invade South Korea, starting the Korean War. The United Nations Security Council calls for member nations to assist South Korea. Seoul, the capital of South Korea, falls to North Korean forces for the first time on June 28. UN forces, primarily composed of U.S. troops, begin arriving in Korea by July.

1950 September 15: UN forces launch a successful amphibious assault near Seoul, turning the tide of the war with the Battle of Inchon. By October, UN forces cross the 38th parallel and advance into North Korea.

1950 October 19: Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea, falls to UN forces. Chinese forces intervene on behalf of North Korea, pushing UN forces back during November.

1951: Seoul falls again in January, this time to Chinese and North Korean forces. UN forces recapture Seoul by March. A stalemate develops around the 38th parallel by April. Armistice negotiations begin at Kaesong in July, later moving to Panmunjom. Intense fighting continues with significant casualties on both sides, while negotiations face multiple breakdowns and delays.

1953 July 27: Armistice Agreement is signed at Panmunjom, establishing the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) and effectively ending the Korean War.

Post-1953: The armistice establishes a ceasefire but not a formal peace treaty, leaving North and South Korea technically still at war. As a result, the DMZ remains one of the most heavily fortified borders in the world.